The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

In Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire — men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification. These revolutions were known as revolution of the liberals.

Following were the ideas supported by liberals:

Political ideas:

• creation of a nation on parliamentary principles.
• a constitution.
• freedom of the press and freedom of association.

Social ideas:

• abolition of discrimination based on birth.
• abolition of serfdom and bonded labour.

Economic ideas:

• ease of trade.
• abolition of trade restriction and duties.

Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings. Following examples show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe:

1. Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.
2. The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences.
3. Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. The use of Polish by members of clergy came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

Development of Germany and Italy can be focused on as two countries developing over the nineteenth century.

Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. This liberal initiative to nation-building was, however, repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia. Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of the process that carried out movement for unification of Germany with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. In January 1871, the Prussian king, Kaiser William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain. In Italy, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. Finally Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy engineered the defeat of Austria in 1859. Giuseppe Garibaldi joined in 1860 and they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

It can be said that the nations developed because of following reasons:

• Unrest in people regarding monarchy and autocracy.
• Making common culture as the base to unify the nation.
• Strong leaders
• Liberal movements and expectation of economic development.

The history of nationalism in Britain is unlike the rest of Europe in the following ways:

1. In Britain, the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process.
2. There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century. The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
3. However, with the growth of the power of the English nation, it was able to dominate the other nations of the islands.
4. The English parliament seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a protracted conflict and became a nation-state with England at its centre.
5. In 1707, the United Kingdom was formed with the Act of Union between England and Scotland.
6. England started dominating Scotland and Ireland in all socio-political and cultural spheres. This was evinced by the fact that the British parliament was dominated by English members.
7. Ireland was taken by the British after a failed revolution led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen in 1798. With this, a new ‘British Nation’ was finally formed.
8. The symbols of the new Britain - the British flag, the national anthem, the English language were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs. The nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans because:

1. A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
2. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
3. The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers.
4. The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others.
5. There was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might. These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded. Each power – Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary – was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area.

The first print by Frédéric Sorrieu, depicts a utopian vision as it shows:

1. In Sorrieu's utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costume. At the time when Sorrieu created this image, the German peoples did not yet exist as a united nation.
2. Fraternity among all the nations of the world was far from reality.

Map of Europe showing the changes drawn up by the Vienna Congress is given below:

I am a weaver of village of Silesia. I received very less payment than what was decided between the weavers and the contractor. On the afternoon of June 4, I went along with my partner and other weavers to the contractor’s home for asking for better wages for our weaving. Our demands were scornfully refused and we were even threatened that no more work will be given to us if we did not work at the same rate as what was paid to us. Some of my fellow weavers got angry at this and broke the window panes of the contractor’s house, barged inside and damaged his furniture and crockery. Some weavers also broke open his store of woven cloth and tore it into shreds. Seeing this, the contractor ran away from the house with his family to a nearby village, but there also he did not get shelter. Next day, the contractor returned with soldiers from the army, who fired at our group of weavers, killing eleven of them. I was shaken with fear and grief engrossed me.

The caricature shows Bismarck with a whip in the parliament and members are afraid of him. It shows the dominance of Bismarck over the elected deputies of parliament. It depicts that though the members are elected they don't have right to speak up their views and share their ideas. They are acting as puppets in hands of Bismarck.

It is clear that the artist is trying to show that the true democracy did not prevail in the parliament. What prevailed was the autocratic behaviour of Bismarck under the name of democracy.

The Italian language had not acquired one common form and still had many regional and local variations. Also the Italian population, among whom rates of illiteracy were very high, remained unaware of liberal nationalist ideology. The peasant masses who had supported Garibaldi in southern Italy had never heard of Italia, and believed that ‘La Talia’ was Victor Emmanuel’s wife! This shows that the people living in these regions did not thought of themselves as Italians.

The first regions to become a part of unified Italy in 1858 were Savoy Sardinia followed by the Northern states. The last region to join was the Papal State in 1870. The largest number of states joined in 1860.

The base of boot here symbolizes the Kingdom of both Sicilies which lay in the southernmost part of the Italian peninsula. It was captured by Garibaldi for the king of Sardinia-Piedmont (King Victor Emmanuel II). The artist has portrayed the role of Garibaldi in unification of Italy.

Germania was the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism. She has sword with olive branch showing readiness to fight as well as willingness to make peace. Broken chain symbolises freedom, breastplate with eagle symbolises strength of German empire and black, red and gold tricolour is flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848 which was banned by the Dukes of the German states. Rays of the rising sun behind Germania depicts beginning of a new era. In an earlier allegorical rendering of 1836, Veit had portrayed the Kaiser's crown at the place where he has now located the broken chain. This change signifies that the German nation is now free from autocratic monarchical rule.

The figure shows Germania as drawn by Philip Veit in 1848. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism. She has sword with olive branch showing readiness to fight as well as willingness to make peace. Black, red and gold tricolour flag belongs liberal-nationalists in 1848. Breastplate with eagle is the symbol of strength of the German empire.

Hübner depicted the fallen Germania. Germania is depicted as a fallen woman, with the crown thrown aside, because the German people's hopes for unity under one monarch (King Friedrich Wilhelm IV) were dashed when he rejected their demand in 1848. The artist, depicted Germany in a forlorn state as a result of the king's rejection. It symbolised the loss of hope.

(a) As a man seating in the hall of deputies, I feel that whatever was symbolized in Germania has come true but women not getting the equal political rights bothers me. Women have always equally participated in all the struggles. I feel this is injustice.

(b) As a woman observing from the galleries, I feel that the whatever has been achieved today is just a partial win. Half of the population is yet to get their political rights. Germania is herself a female figure and still the females of Germany are kept away from voting rights. It is unfair.

Renan denied the notion suggested by others that a nation is formed by a common language, race, religion, or territory. According to him attributes of a nation were:

1. A nation must have a heroic past and glory. It is the culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice and devotion.
2. To have common glories in the past, to have a common will in the present, to have performed great deeds together are condition for being people of a nation.
3. Every decision should be made in consultation with the people of the nation.
4. A nation is therefore a large-scale solidarity. Its existence is a daily plebiscite.
5. A nation never has any real interest in annexing or holding on to a country against its will.

According to Renan, the nations are important because their existence is a guarantee of liberty, which would be lost if the world had only one law and only one master i.e., monarchy.

Before 1834, the German states had different currencies, weights and measures. There were multiple customs barrier for a merchant. All these were obstacles in the path of unification of nation. Friedrich List, hoped to bind the nation into one by emphasizing the concept of national economy and economic measures that could help forge the nation together. According to him, the customs union or zollverein was effective in increasing productivity as well as awakening national sentiments. It ought to awaken and raise national sentiment through a fusion of individual and provincial interests. The German people have realised that a free economic system is the only means to engender national feeling.

The caricaturist is trying to depict the condition of conservative autocratic regime that did not look positively towards the modernism and liberty. The inscription on the board and plaque are satire aiming at how the thinking and speaking about ideas of freedom and liberty are banned. Muzzles in the caricature show that the autocratic government was oppressive as no one was allowed to put forth any idea related to liberty. Books, newspapers, plays and songs were also censored.

The local language and traditions proved to be the biggest factor for creating awareness among people regarding nationalism. Use of vernacular language, folk tales and music became the tools to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate. For instance, when Russia occupied Poland, Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. But many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction. Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols. Thus, the use of local language came to be seen as a symbol of the national struggle and traditions helped to keep alive the spirit of nationalism.

Silesian weavers' uprising was due to sudden reduction in their wages by the contractors. The contractors supplied them raw material and gave them orders for finished textiles but they drastically reduced their payments. This caused widespread unrest and finally led to uprising.

The journalist, Wilhelm Wolff put forth the plight of weavers of Silesia. He wrote 'The misery of the workers is extreme. The desperate need for jobs has been taken advantage of by the contractors to reduce the prices of the goods they order ...'. This shows that he was sympathetic toward the weavers. The journalist explained how they were treated with scorn and threats when they asked for their normal payments. Their uprising was crushed and eleven weavers were shot by the requisitioned army.

They reveal that a part of the learned community supported the political rights and suffrage for women while others considered women fit only for household chores. This shows that the issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years.

(a) Giuseppe Mazzini — Giuseppe Mazzini, born in Genoa in 1807, emerged as a key figure in the Italian revolutionary movement. He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. As a young man of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He subsequently founded two more underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. He advocated that Italian liberty lay in unification, creating a singular republic within a larger alliance of nations. His relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives. Metternich described him as 'the most dangerous enemy of our social order'. He died on March, 10, 1872.

(b) Count Camillo de Cavour — Count Camillo de Cavour, born on August 10, 1810, was a prominent statesman and leading figure in the Italian unification movement. He was well versed in French and this helped him to form a tactful diplomatic alliance with France. This alliance played an important role in Sardinia-Piedmont defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. Count Camillo de Cavour became the chief minister. He introduced several economic reforms in his native place in Piedmont and Risorgimento was the political newspaper started by him. In 1860, after Giuseppe Garibaldi's successful Expedition of the Thousand, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies joined the unified Kingdom of Italy. Cavour skillfully managed this annexation, balancing nationalist aspirations with European power dynamics. He died on June 6, 1861.

(c) The Greek war of independence — Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821. Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

(d) Frankfurt parliament — In the German regions a large number of political associations whose members were middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly. On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. However, this parliament failed as Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.

(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles — Women played very significant roles in nationalist struggles all over the world. A large numbers of women had participated in the liberal movement actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly. In the Frankfurt parliament, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors' gallery.

The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. They were:

1. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
2. A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
3. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, in the name of the nation.
4. French became the common language of the nation.

Marianne and Germania were the female allegories representing the nations of France and Germany.

Christened Marianne, a popular Christian name was female representation which underlined the idea of a people’s nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. She reminded the public of the national symbol of unity and persuaded them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.

Similarly, Germania also represented glory, peace and bravery. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism. She has sword with olive branch showing readiness to fight as well as willingness to make peace. Black, red and gold tricolour is flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848 which was banned by the Dukes of the German states. Breastplate with eagle became the symbol of strength of german empire. The way they were portrayed was important to arouse the feeling of nationalism among people in order to unite them.

The process of German unification can be traced as follows:

1. Middle class germans united in 1848 to create a nation-state out of the numerous German States. But the monarchy and the military got together to repress them and they gained support from the landowners of Prussia (the Junkers) too.
2. Prussia soon became the leader of the German unification movement.
3. Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck was the architect of the process with support from Prussian army and Prussian bureaucracy.
4. The unification process was completed after Prussia won wars with Austria, Denmark, and France over seven years time.
5. In January 1871, the Prussian king, Kaiser William I, was proclaimed the German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

Napoleon introduce following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him:

1. The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
2. In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
3. In the towns guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved.
4. Uniform laws, standardised weights and measures, and a common national currency was started.