The Age of Industrialisation

Some industrialists in nineteenth-century Europe preferred hand labour over machines because:

1. The machines were very expensive and they were cautious to use it.
2. The machines often broke down and the cost of repairing them was huge.
3. The machines were not as effective as claimed by their inventors and manufacturers.
4. Cheap labour was available in plenty. Merchants preferred to use labour as it was economical for them.
5. Machine-produced products could not match the quality of hand made products.

Earlier, the East India Company had found it difficult to ensure a regular supply of goods for export. The French, Dutch, Portuguese as well as the local traders competed in the market to secure woven cloth. So the weaver and supply merchants could bargain and try selling the produce to the best buyer. However, once the East India Company established political power, it could assert a monopoly right to trade. It proceeded to develop a system of management and control that would eliminate competition, control costs, and ensure regular supplies of cotton and silk goods. Following steps were taken:

1. Company tried to eliminate the existing traders and brokers connected with the cloth trade, and establish a more direct control over the weaver by appointing gomastha a paid servant called to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and examine the quality of cloth.
2. Company prevented its weavers from dealing with other buyers. One way of doing this was through the system of advances. Once an order was placed, the weavers were given loans to purchase the raw material for their production. Those who took loans had to hand over the cloth they produced to the gomastha. They could not take it to any other trader.

Cotton, the versatile and ubiquitous fabric, has played a significant role in British history, shaping its industry, society, and even its global influence. From its humble beginnings as an imported luxury to becoming the cornerstone of the Industrial Revolution, the story of cotton in Britain is intricately linked with innovation, empire, and social change.

Early Introduction of Cotton

Cotton's journey to Britain began in the 17th century, brought in by the East India Company. Initially regarded as a luxurious and exotic fabric, cotton was a symbol of status and wealth. The high cost and limited supply restricted its widespread use.

The Coming Up of the Factory

The Industrial Revolution ushered in a transformative era for the British cotton industry. In 1760, Britain was importing 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton to feed its cotton industry. By 1787, this import soared to 22 million pounds. Richard Arkwright created the cotton mill bringing the entire production process together under one roof and management. Inventions like the spinning jenny (1764) and the power loom (1784) revolutionized production, making cotton affordable and accessible to the masses. Cotton was now the leading sector in the first phase of industrialisation up to the 1840s. The demand for raw cotton soared, leading Britain to source it from its colonies in the Americas and India.

The Rise of Cottonopolis

Fueled by innovation and cheap labour, cotton mills mushroomed in northern England, particularly in Lancashire, which earned the nickname "Cottonopolis." Cities like Manchester became hubs of industry, attracting migrants seeking work and transforming the social landscape. However, the rapid growth came at a human cost, with harsh working conditions and exploitation plaguing mill workers.

The Role of the British Empire

The consolidation of East India Company power in India slowly led to its control over Indian market. British cotton industries had not yet expanded and Indian fine textiles were in great demand in Europe. However, once the East India Company established political power, it could assert a monopoly right to trade. Soon it was in control of exports of cotton from India and it also used India as its market for factory made cheap products. While the British cotton industry undoubtedly benefited from India's resources and markets, the impact on India was largely negative.

Conclusion

Cotton's story in Britain is a tapestry woven with threads of innovation, exploitation, and transformation. It reflects the nation's industrial might, its imperial reach, and the evolving social fabric of its people.

The increase in industrial production in India during the First World War was fueled by disruptions in global trade and the strategic needs of the British Empire. With British mills busy with war production to meet the needs of the army, Manchester imports into India declined. Suddenly, Indian mills had a vast home market to supply. As the war prolonged, Indian factories were called upon to supply war needs: jute bags, cloth for army uniforms, tents and leather boots, horse and mule saddles and a host of other items. New factories were set up and old ones ran multiple shifts. Many new workers were employed and everyone was made to work longer hours. Therefore, the war led to an increase in industrial production.

Modern development has pros as well as cons. New innovations made life easier but they also have numerous drawbacks. Two such examples are:

1. Environmental degradation — Industrial activities released pollutants into the air, water, and soil, contributing to issues such as air pollution, deforestation, soil erosion, and climate change. The exploitation of natural resources and the emission of greenhouse gases have resulted in long-term consequences for ecosystems, biodiversity, and overall planetary health.
2. Nuclear weapons — The use of nuclear weapons, as witnessed in historical events like the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II, showcased the devastating impact on human populations and the environment. So, even though we might think of these weapons as protecting us, they also bring a big risk of causing serious harm to our world.

My parents and teachers tend to prioritize academic achievements over my accomplishments in sports. While securing the first rank in class is undoubtedly commendable, I believe that excelling in sports, such as coming first in a 100-meter race, is equally valuable. Both academics and sports contribute significantly to a person's overall development, fostering a well-rounded individual. So both should be given equal importance.

The Lancashire cotton mill shown in figure 4, suggests a positive perception of industrialisation emphasising job creation and economic growth. The overall impression is one of power, industry, and progress. The massive mills, equipped with expensive machinery, captured the imagination of people and they forgot the bylanes and the workshops where production still continued.

Figure 5 shows the landscape of Manchester dominated by chimneys billowing smoke symbolizing the environmental degradation associated with industrialisation. The overall impression is one of grime, pollution, and harsh working conditions. It emphasises the negative aspects of industrialisation such as environmental concerns, worker exploitation and social inequality.

The two images provide a valuable contrast that helps us to understand the full impact of industrialisation.

Dear ........

I am writing you regarding your request to buy the new machine. I feel that buying this machine is not economically feasible for me. Following are the reasons why I think so:

1. The machine is very expensive and presently work is efficiently done by cheap labourers.
2. I have heard that the repairing cost of these machines are very high and also they break down very often.
3. The machine is not as effective as claimed by you and manufacturers. They cannot match the quality of hand made stuffs.

For all these reasons, I will not be able to purchase the machine offered by you.

Yours Sincerely

..........

Below map shows the sea and land links of the textile trade from India to Central Asia, West Asia and Southeast Asia:

By looking at the given figures it is clear that earlier one wheel could yarn only one spindle. At that time all members of a family were employed and earning. But due to Spinning Jenny, productivity increased, as many spindles could be yearned at one time from one wheel. This led to an increase in unemployment specially among women as they lost their traditional job. Therefore, many workers were opposed to the use of Spinning Jenny.

(a) The Spinning Jenny was opposed by British women workers because it created a fear of losing jobs. It sped up the spinning process and, as a result, reduced labour demand. They had been surviving on hand spinning up until now, but the introduction of efficient and fast new machine was ready to make them jobless. Therefore, women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny.

(b) With the expansion of world trade and the acquisition of colonies in different parts of the world, the demand for goods began growing. In the seventeenth century urban crafts and trade guilds were powerful. These were associations of producers that trained craftspeople, maintained control over production, regulated competition and prices, and restricted the entry of new people into the trade. Rulers granted different guilds the monopoly right to produce and trade in specific products. It was therefore difficult for new merchants to set up business in towns. That is why the the seventeenth century merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and artisans within the villages to meet the international demands.

(c) Before industrialisation, Indian silk and cotton goods dominated the international market in textiles. Surat on Gujarat coast was one of the main pre-colonial ports through which a vibrant sea trade operated. By the 1750s, the European companies gradually gained power by securing a variety of concessions from local courts, then the monopoly rights to trade. This resulted in a decline of the old ports of Surat. Exports from these ports of Surat and Hooghly fell dramatically, the credit that had financed the earlier trade began drying up, and the local bankers slowly went bankrupt. In the last years of the seventeenth century, the gross value of trade that passed through Surat had been Rs 16 million. By the 1740s it had slumped to Rs 3 million.

(d) The East India Company proceeded to develop a system of management and control that would eliminate competition, control costs, and ensure regular supplies of cotton and silk goods. Therefore, the Company tried to eliminate the existing traders and brokers connected with the cloth trade, and established a more direct control over the weaver. It appointed a paid servant called the gomasthas to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and examine the quality of cloth. The new gomasthas were outsiders, with no long-term social link with the village. They acted arrogantly, marched into villages with sepoys and peons, and punished weavers for delays in supply – often beating and flogging them.

(a) False
Corrected Statement — At the end of the nineteenth century, less than 20 per cent of the total workforce in Europe was employed in the technologically advanced industrial sector.

(b) True

(c) False
Corrected Statement — When the American Civil War broke out and cotton supplies from the US were cut off, Britain turned to India.

(d) True

The term 'proto' refers to early form of something. Before factories began to dot the landscape in England and Europe, there was large-scale industrial production for an international market. This was not based on factories. Most of the production was done by cottage industries based in countryside. It involved decentralized, home based production. Merchants provided raw materials and collected finished products. Final finishing was done mainly in London. Many historians refer to this phase of industrialisation as proto-industrialisation. This implies to production and trade before industrialisation, which was earlier ignored by historians.