Print Culture and the Modern World

By the mid-eighteenth century, there was a common conviction that books were a means of spreading progress and enlightenment. Many believed that books could change the world, liberate society from despotism and tyranny, and herald a time when reason and intellect would rule. Louise-Sebastien Mercier, a novelist in eighteenth-century France, declared: ‘The printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the force that will sweep despotism away.’

Print culture helped the widespread dissemination of knowledge, allowing ideas of enlightenment to reach broader audience. The sharing of information and rational discourse through printed materials contributed to the questioning of traditional authority, advocating for reason, individual rights, and democratic principles.

Print created the possibility of wide circulation of ideas, and introduced a new world of debate and discussion. Not everyone welcomed the printed book, and those who did also had fears about it. Many were apprehensive of the effects that the easier access to the printed word and the wider circulation of books, could have on people’s minds. It was feared that if there was no control over what was printed and read then rebellious and irreligious thoughts might spread. If that happened the authority of ‘valuable’ literature would be destroyed.

Example from Europe: Menocchio, a miller in Italy, read locally available books and reinterpreted the message of the Bible formulating a view of God and Creation that enraged the Roman Catholic Church. He was arrested and questioned twice and finally executed. The Roman Church, troubled by such effects of popular readings and questionings of faith, imposed severe controls over publishers and booksellers and began to maintain an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558.

Example from India: Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances. In East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi, a young married girl in a very orthodox household, learnt to read in the secrecy of her kitchen.

The spread of print culture in 19th century India facilitated access to information, education and diverse perspective. The emergence of Vernacular literature even helped fostering broader literacy and awareness among them. Enlightening essays were written against caste discrimination and its inherent injustices. Jyotiba Phule, the Maratha pioneer of ‘low caste’ protest movements, wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1871). In the twentieth century, B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in Madras, better known as Periyar, wrote powerfully on caste and their writings were read by people all over India. Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and published "Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal" in 1938 to show the links between caste and class exploitation. The poems of another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan Chakr between 1935 and 1955, were brought together and published in a collection called "Sacchi Kavitayan". Local protest movements and sects also created a lot of popular journals and tracts criticising ancient scriptures and envisioning a new and just future. Social reformers tried to restrict excessive drinking among them, to bring literacy and, sometimes, to propagate the message of nationalism through their writings.

Print culture played a significant role in fostering the growth of nationalism in India during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The introduction and widespread dissemination of print media, including newspapers, books, pamphlets, and journals, had a profound impact on shaping and strengthening the nationalist movement. Newspapers and journals facilitated the dissemination of news, opinions, and developments related to the nationalist cause, creating a sense of awareness among the masses. Debates and discussions in the print media contributed to the formation of a collective consciousness among Indians, fostering a shared sense of identity and purpose. Nationalist newspapers grew in numbers in all parts of India. They reported on colonial misrule and encouraged nationalist activities. "Kesari" was a Marathi-language newspaper that played a significant role in the Indian independence movement. The newspaper was founded by Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak. It carried reports of nationalist activities, speeches, and events, encouraging people to participate in the movement for independence.

Dear .........

I am exploring China these days. I am amazed to see the technique of printing here. From AD 594 onwards, books in China are being printed by rubbing paper against the inked surface of woodblocks. As both sides of the thin, porous sheet could not be printed, the traditional Chinese ‘accordion book’ is folded and stitched at the side. Superbly skilled craftsmen could duplicate, with remarkable accuracy, the beauty of calligraphy. This technique is amazing.

When I will come back I will bring the technology of woodblock printing from here.

Marco polo
China

The picture, a lithograph by Alfred Concanen, 1874 offers a fascinating glimpse into the early days of mass advertising and its potential impact on the public mind. Such advertisements can have a variety of effects, both positive and negative.

Positive effects

1. Raising awareness — Advertisements can inform people about new products, services, or causes they may not have been aware of before.
2. Educating the public — Ads can be used to educate people about important issues, such as health, safety, or the environment.
3. Promoting positive social change — Ads can be used to challenge stereotypes and promote social justice.

Negative effects

1. Creating unrealistic expectations — Ads often portray idealized versions of life, which can lead to feelings of dissatisfaction with one's own life.
2. Encouraging materialism — Ads often focus on selling products, which can lead to a focus on material possessions and a desire for things one may not need.
3. Exploiting insecurities — Ads often play on people's insecurities, such as their fears of being unattractive or unpopular, to sell products.

Different reactions to advertisements

Not everyone reacts to advertisements in the same way. Some people are more susceptible to the persuasive techniques used in advertising than others. Factors such as age, education level, and cultural background can all influence how people respond to ads. Additionally, people's individual needs and wants will also play a role in how they perceive advertisements.

(a) In figure 19, the artist is citing a change that was then seen in the society. Earlier the mother-in-law used to dominate the daughter-in-law but now, according to the artist the daughter-in-law is dominating husband as well as mother-in-law.

In figure 20, the artist is depicting the fear of the society regarding the impact of the western culture. The rising culture of educating women in society gave rise to anxiety and insecurity in the orthodox section of the society. The artist here is presenting anxiety and fear of that section of society.

In figure 21, the artist is showing traditional family roles as expected by the orthodox section of the society showing a European couple.

(b) The empowerment of women, education of women and impact of western culture were the factors that provoked this reaction. The traditional and orthodox were worried with these developments.

(c) No, I don't agree with the artist's view. The empowerment of women is must for empowerment of any society. Education is equally important for all human beings. One particular gender must not be kept deprived of the opportunities of education, development and empowerment.

There were a variety of reasons why some people feared that the development of print could lead to the growth of dissenting ideas:

1. The Roman catholic church felt that the people will learn to read and reinterpret the message of the Bible and formulate their own view of God and Creation.
2. Upper and learned class believed that the spread of books will reduce their value as learned class.
3. Some feared that people will become rebellious and go against the set norms of the society.
4. According to Erasmus, the books might spread stupid, ignorant, slanderous, scandalous, raving, irreligious and seditious ideas.

Some historians think that print culture created the basis for the French Revolution as:

1. Print popularised the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers. Collectively, their writings provided a critical commentary on tradition, superstition and despotism. They argued for the rule of reason rather than custom, and demanded that everything be judged through the application of reason and rationality. They attacked the sacred authority of the Church and the despotic power of the state, thus eroding the legitimacy of a social order based on tradition.
2. Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. All values, norms and institutions were re-evaluated and discussed by a public that had become aware of the power of reason, and recognised the need to question existing ideas and beliefs.
3. By the 1780s there was an outpouring of literature that mocked the royalty and criticised their morality. In the process, it raised questions about the existing social order. Cartoons and caricatures typically suggested that the monarchy remained absorbed only in sensual pleasures while the common people suffered immense hardships. This literature circulated underground and led to the growth of hostile sentiments against the monarchy.

(a) Woodblock printing originated in China around the sixth century. Marco Polo was the Italian explorer who visited China. There he learnt the technology of woodblock printing. When he returned to Italy in 1295, he brought this knowledge back with him. Gradually, this knowledge spread from Italy to other parts of Europe.

(b) According to Martin Luther printing was God's ultimate and greatest gift. His views against the rituals of the Roman Catholic Church became popular due to printing. He felt that print will bring about a new intellectual atmosphere and help spread the new ideas. Therefore, Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.

(c) The Roman Church imposed severe controls over publishers and booksellers and began to maintain an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558 because popular religious literature stimulated many distinctive individual interpretations of faith and the Roman Church was troubled by effects of popular readings and questionings of faith. For example, Menocchio, a miller in Italy, began to read books that were available in his locality. He reinterpreted the message of the Bible and formulated a view of God and Creation that enraged the Roman Catholic Church. He was arrested and questioned twice and finally executed.

(d) Gandhi's vision of Swaraj was not limited to just political independence but extended to the comprehensive empowerment of individuals in all aspects of life. He saw the principles of free speech, a free press, and freedom of association as integral to building a just and self-reliant society. According to Gandhiji, liberty of speech, liberty of press and freedom of association were three most powerful vehicles of expressing and cultivating public opinion. Therefore, he said that the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom of association.

(a) The Gutenberg Press — Gutenberg was the son of a merchant. He invented Gutenberg press. Gutenberg adapted existing technology to design his innovation. The olive press provided the model for the printing press, and moulds were used for casting the metal types for the letters of the alphabet. Gutenberg developed metal types for each of the 26 characters of the Roman alphabet and devised a way of moving them around so as to compose different words of the text. This came to be known as the moveable type printing machine. It remained the basic print technology over the next 300 years. The Gutenberg press could print 250 sheets on one side per hour. The first book printed here was the Bible. About 180 copies were printed and it took three years to produce them. By the standards of the time this was fast production.

(b) Erasmus's idea of the printed book — Erasmus, a Latin scholar and a Catholic reformer was against printing of books. He criticised the printing of books because he thought that most of the books are stupid, ignorant, scandalous, raving, irreligious and seditious. He insisted that the printing of books will be hurtful to scholars. The learned section and their writings will lose their value due to swarming books.

(c) The Vernacular Press Act — The Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878. It was modelled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. From now on, the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published in different provinces. When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned, and if the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated. This act helped the government to keep a tab on growing patriotism and movements in India.

(a) Women — Women in India were immensely affected by the print culture. Lives and feelings of women began to be written in particularly vivid and intense ways. Women’s reading, therefore, increased enormously in middle-class homes. Liberal husbands and fathers began educating their womenfolk at home, and sent them to schools when women’s schools were set up in the cities and towns after the mid-nineteenth century. Girls of conservative families secretly learnt to read and write. Many journals began carrying writings by women, and explained why women should be educated. As a result some women like Rashsundari Debi and Kailashbashini Debi, became writers. Rashsundari Debi wrote her autobiography Amar Jiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full-length autobiography published in the Bengali language.

(b) The poor — Printing made small books and booklets affordable for poor people. Enlightening essays were written against caste discrimination and its inherent injustices. Workers in factories were too overworked and lacked the education to write much about their experiences. But Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and published "Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal" in 1938 to show the links between caste and class exploitation. The poems of another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan Chakr between 1935 and 1955, were brought together and published in a collection called "Sacchi Kavitayan". Jyotiba Phule, the Maratha pioneer of 'low caste' protest movements, wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1871). In the twentieth century, B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in Madras, better known as Periyar, wrote powerfully on caste and their writings were read by people all over India. Local protest movements and sects also created a lot of popular journals and tracts criticising ancient scriptures and envisioning a new and just future.

(c) Reformers — The introduction of Printing in India had a significant impact on reformers. This was a time of intense controversies between social and religious reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood and idolatry. In Bengal, as the debate developed, tracts and newspapers proliferated, circulating a variety of arguments. It facilitated the dissemination of ideas, enabling reformers to reach a wider audience. Reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy utilized print media to promote social and religious reforms, fostering awareness and discussion among the masses. This played a crucial role in shaping the intellectual landscape during the nineteenth century.